What Is Misinformation?
Often referred to as “fake news” in modern times, the term “misinformation” is defined as false or inaccurate information that may be distributed with the intent to deceive those who read it.
Information or opinions that you disagree with may not necessarily constitute misinformation. While the term “fake news” is often used as a pejorative in journalism today, this is a dishonest use of the term; indeed, the practice of calling fact-based reporting “misinformation” based on the premise that it doesn’t align with your political views could arguably be called misinformation itself.
To understand the concept of misinformation, consider a couple of modern examples:
- In May 2019, a video made the rounds on social media that appeared to show Nancy Pelosi stammering and slurring her speech, causing many pundits to question her mental aptitude. The New York Times revealed that this was, in fact, a doctored video.
- In early 2020, a number of myths began making headlines regarding the supposed treatment of COVID-19, commonly referred to as coronavirus. Many bogus claims were presented as fact, including the idea that eating more red meat or coconut oil could treat the virus.
Both instances of misinformation are clearly designed to push a specific agenda, whether that be to besmirch a political opponent or to sell a phony solution to a desperate market. Such content can harm public discourse by influencing individuals to make misinformed decisions when it comes to politics or their personal well-being. Debunking such claims requires careful research, fact-checking, and media forensics. These are only a couple of examples of the countless areas where misinformation can make an impact.
Misinformation vs. Disinformation
While the two terms are commonly used in place of one another, “misinformation” and “disinformation” are not synonyms. Misinformation refers to inaccurate reporting that stems from inaccuracies; as such, the term does not imply an intent to deceive. Disinformation, on the other hand. refers to the intentional spread of inaccurate information with the intent to deceive.
To be clear, disinformation is always misinformation, while misinformation may be disinformation, depending on the intent. For example, if an article discussing a political figure is found to contain a factual error, it is misinformation. If it is discovered that the inaccuracy was intentional, the article can be called disinformation. Since intent can be hard to determine, these terms are often used interchangeably.
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Clickbait
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Clickbait is sensationalized content or headlines designed to attract attention by appealing to readers’ emotions (often anger) or curiosity. As the name suggests, the purpose of clickbait is to bait readers to engage with the content in order to generate ad revenue. It is usually light on facts or any other meaningful information; instead, the thin content is stretched out over many pages, maximizing the number of ads that can be served to each user.
If that isn’t annoying enough, clickbait can spread fake news. Incensed readers may share this poorly researched and poorly written content with their social circles, directing bad information to more and more eyes.
Examples of clickbait can be found everywhere. It is a ubiquitous tactic employed by marketers and content creators on social media, unscrupulous news websites, and blogs. Some examples of headlines that might indicate probable clickbait include:
- “10 Tricks for Perfect Skin (You Won’t Believe #4!)”;
- “12 Uses for Avocados You Never Thought Of”;
- “The Biggest Tax Tricks Your CPA Isn’t Telling You About.”
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Misleading Headlines
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In the same vein as clickbait, misleading headlines can be used to generate interest by appealing to our emotions and curiosity. Even if the article itself is well-written and based on fact, the content can give a false impression if the headline is misleading. For this reason, such headlines may be called “clickbait,” even if they don’t fit the definition of that term as outlined above.
Unfortunately, research indicates that most social media users share articles based on the headline without actually having read the article. If the headline doesn’t accurately reflect the truth, it may have the same effect as stories that are complete fabrications.
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Propaganda
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Propaganda consists of biased and potentially false information that is spread through mass media, and it is designed to manipulate its audience into holding specific opinions. There are many tactics used in propaganda, including:
- Emotional appeals: As with other forms of misinformation, propaganda often leans on using emotional appeals to generate interest and manipulate readers.
- Using lies or “half-truths”: Propaganda may outright lie to convince readers. Alternatively, it may use partial quotes, skewed statistics, or other dishonest methods to support a specific point of view.
- Testimonials: Propagandistic articles may also present testimonials, sometimes from well-known celebrities, to support their view. These are also sometimes fabricated.
To see modern examples of propaganda, look at the content produced by presidential candidates, from ads to speeches. The arguments and appeals used in political content often use emotional appeals, present skewed information, and rely on endorsements from respected celebrities and politicians.
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Satire
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News satire is a type of parody that mimics real news sources, and its humor is typically derived from its deadpan, ironic presentation. Not every reader will discern this irony, so this kind of satire can sometimes be misinterpreted as factual. While satire is not intended to be manipulative by definition, it can have the same effect as fake news if it is not interpreted as the writer intends it to be.
To see how this looks in action, read the classic satirical essay by Jonathan Swift, “A Modest Proposal.” Without understanding the ironic approach Swift uses in this piece, readers might come away from the essay thinking that the author is earnestly suggesting that the people of Ireland should sell their children as food. Similarly, modern satire can be misinterpreted, leading to unintentional consequences.
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Reliable News Sources
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The most reliable news sources produce news content by following rigorous journalistic standards and focusing on fact-based reporting. News sources, such as The Economist, Reuters, National Public Radio, and The Guardian are some examples of widely- and highly-trusted publications.
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Unreliable News Sources
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Unreliable news sources tend to focus more on opinion-based than fact-based reporting, and they generally lack strong fact-checking. They often demonstrate clear biases and present skewed information, failing to present balanced perspectives on topics they discuss.
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Facebook
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Facebook has recognized the problems associated with fake news and is taking action to address it. Some initiatives in this vein include the Facebook Journalism Project and the News Integrity Initiative. These are designed to spread awareness about the problems associated with fake news, as well as increase overall trust in journalism.
Facebook has also vowed to label or remove fake news as the presidential election draws closer in an effort to minimize the influence of politically motivated fake news. The company has taken action against individuals and pages sharing fake news, removing them from the site when appropriate.
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Instagram
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Spearheaded by the same individuals in charge at Facebook, Instagram has also seen new measures to combat misinformation. This primarily comes in the form of a new “false information” label that may be applied to posts. This labeling system includes third-party fact-checkers that identify and review suspicious posts. If the information in it is deemed to be untrue, they will mark it with a label that makes it clear to users that the post contains misinformation.
Upon viewing a post with this label, users will have to click on an acknowledgment that the information presented in the post is not true. Further, if an individual attempts to share the post, they will receive a warning that they are about to share false information.
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Snapchat
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Since its inception, the way content has been shared on Snapchat has made the platform less susceptible to the spread of fake news. This is because, historically, it has simply been a messaging app. The Discover feature is overseen by human moderators, so the chances of widespread misinformation are slim.
Further, Snapchat employees are quick to analyze viral events or stories and fact-check them without letting them get out of hand on the platform. This was exemplified by the company’s handling of the Charlottesville car attack in August 2017, when staff verified details with local law enforcement to verify the story’s authenticity.
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Twitter
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Twitter has clearly stated its stance on misinformation:
“We, as a company, should not be the arbiter of truth. Journalists, experts and engaged citizens Tweet side-by-side correcting and challenging public discourse in seconds. These vital interactions happen on Twitter every day, and we’re working to ensure we are surfacing the highest quality and most relevant content and context first.”
In short, the platform does not seek to combat misinformation directly. It does, however, take action against spammy or manipulative behaviors, particularly when it comes to bots. Indeed, millions of accounts have been suspended for this reason.
How Social Media Users Are Contributing to Misinformation
Throughout the past decade, misinformation has flourished on social media. While information on users — including their demographics and internet behavior — is intended to be used by marketers, it can also be leveraged by those looking to spread misinformation. Using this data, fake news can be designed to appeal to a core audience to encourage authentic engagement. From there, the content can gain exposure rapidly, potentially going viral.
In this way, social media enhances the reach of those responsible for misinformation. Each social media network contributes to misinformation in different ways, impacting how people handle issues related to politics, health, and more.
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Facebook
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Many have argued that fake news on Facebook had a dramatic impact on the 2016 presidential election. In fact, an article published by The Atlantic states that the social media giant has fundamentally altered the nature of American Democracy. The platform is a major source of political information for millions of Americans, and fake news can have a powerful effect on elections.
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Instagram
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As the old adage goes, “a picture is worth a thousand words,” and this is exemplified no better than by the spread of fake news on Instagram in the form of Photoshopped images. For example, one image that gained popularity in late 2017 was that of President Trump helping flood victims in Texas after Hurricane Harvey. However, the image of Trump was fake. This image gave a false impression that impacted public perception. Digitally manipulated images, in addition to fake news presented in Instagram Stories, are powerful ways to spread misinformation.
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Snapchat
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Overall, fake news is less of a concern on Snapchat than on other social media platforms discussed here. Nevertheless, this has changed slightly with the addition of the Discover feature, which could hypothetically be used to propagate misinformation. This feature uses machine learning to suggest content that users may enjoy based on their viewing history. Like algorithms on other social media platforms, it’s possible that this could be “gamed” by individuals looking to share fake news.
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Twitter
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Misinformation on Twitter has proven difficult to prevent. The platform’s emphasis on eschewing strict moderation in favor of organic discussion hasn’t led to balanced representations of the truth — particularly when it comes to politics. Further, while Twitter officials have sworn to take action against bots, research indicates that they are not able to keep up with the flood of junk accounts.
